Eric Stoller's Blog

Online Development Theory

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to outline and showcase
a theory of online development. The theory was constructed using a variety
of student development theories. Psychosocial and Cognitive Development theories
form the basis for a stage based model which incorporates challenge and support
in an online context. Student affairs applications are given which utilize
the model as way to understand a student’s experience
as well as to increase the viability of online programs and services. Further
study will be required to validate the theory and its subsequent model. Qualitative
analysis and the development of stages will allow continual discussion, reflection,
and synthesis.

I believe that student development theories exist to provide student affairs
professionals with frameworks for the creation of programs and services. The
majority of the theories which have been written for student development are
written in a brick and mortar context. This is most likely due to a pre-Internet
origination. The irony that is inherent in this lack of an online theory of
student development is the realization that most student development theories
can be modified to work in an online context. For example, a student’s
interaction environment can be altered from on campus in the classroom to online
on the campus web site. Another example can be altering of the traditional
authority figure i.e. a professor to an information portal acting in place
of a real, authoritative figure.

In this paper I will attempt to incorporate theories from Chickering, Astin,
Sanford, and Perry to create an online developmental theory which is stage
based but is inclusive to all students regardless of age, socioeconomic status,
and physical/cognitive ability. I will refer to online users as students or
as universal users (UU) but both will contain the same interchangeable meaning.
The UUs will be ranked in terms of their level of web sophistication and their
position on an online involvement model. The online environment is defined
as information portals, interactive web sites which include utilitarian and
educational functions, blogs, online communities, and web based classes.

Student Development Theories

Chickering
Chickering’s Theory of Identity Development and its seven vectors
of development provide a psychosocial framework for the online identity of
a UU (Evans, Forney, and Guide-DiBrito, 1998). The seven vectors are: developing
competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence,
developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing
purpose, and developing integrity (Evans et al.). Published in 1969, Chickering’s
vectors were written for a brick and mortar reality. However, the vectors are
extremely fluidic and I will attempt to map each vector to the traits of the
developing UU.

Developing Competence

Although Chickering’s vectors are not stage based, it is important to
note that developing competence is a primary vector for the UU. According to
Chickering and Reisser (1993), competence is divided into three distinct areas: “intellectual
competence, physical and manual skills, and interpersonal competence” (as
cited in Evans et al., 1998, p. 38). A UU needs to develop competency within
an online context in order to have an identity. Intellectual competency can
range from basic knowledge of computers and internet services to enhanced browsing
skills which include searching and multi-tasking. Physical and manual skills
are core skills for the online student. In a classroom or campus-based environment
these skills would include being able to navigate the physical world regardless
of physical ability. At times, this can be very difficult for students due
to a disability. Fortunately, the online environment, if appropriately constructed,
provides ample navigation aids and cues for all users. The third area of competency
is interpersonal competency. Interpersonal skills are extremely important for
a UU. According to Evans et al., interpersonal skills are useful for “communication,
leadership, and working effectively with others” (p. 38). Online communities
like thefacebook, friendster, and xanga necessitate the need for interpersonal
competency by providing a communal atmosphere where students can fail or flourish
with their peers.

Managing Emotions

Online emotional management can be defined as the internal emotions of the
UU and the way that they express those emotions in an online context. Students
can become highly emotional when faced with a web site that is not user-friendly
or when someone “flames” them in an online community.

Moving Through Autonomy Toward Interdependence

Autonomy and Interdependence are extremely important for UUs. According to
Evans et al., students develop “self-direction, problem-solving ability,
and mobility” within this vector (1998, p. 39). At first it would seem
that autonomy would be of higher importance than interdependence but the balance
of being self-reliant and connected to the community factor into a fully formed
online identity is crucial for the online student.

Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships

The key to this vector is the appreciation of differences. The only commonality
which defines all UUs is that they are online.

Establishing Identity

As stated by Evans et al. (1998), establishing identity is constructed on
the previous vectors. In the online environment, individuals can have multiple
identities i.e. a quiet, infrequent poster in an online class versus an aggressive
persona in an online community. This is similar to the possibilities which
exist within a brick and mortar context but it is considerably easier to create
multiple online identities.

Developing Purpose and Developing Integrity

The final vectors are fairly similar. According to Evans et al. (1998), purpose
involves intentionality, choice, and decision. Integrity focuses purpose by
overlaying it with a sense of values. Although not meant to be linear, these
vectors are difficult to parlay into an online context. A UU would have to
be extremely developed to reach these final vectors.

Astin

The five postulates of Alexander Astin’s Theory of Student Involvement
provide a basis for any theory which involves involvement. According to Astin, “student
involvement refers to the amount of physical and psychological energy that
the student devotes to the academic experience” (1984, p. 297). Online
experiences are a fundamental component to the overall academic success of
college students.

Sanford

In 1967, Nevitt Sanford “characterized learning as a process of challenge
and response” (as cited in Terenzini, 1999, p. 34). Sanford (1967) posited
that the developing individual “grows” and learns when a challenging
situation is presented (p. 44). Several authors have modified Sanford’s
concept from the framework of challenge/response to a more balanced model of
challenge and support. According to Chickering, “Environments that provide
a combination of challenge and support tailored to students’ level of
development are recommended to assist students in adapting appropriately to
the challenges they encounter” (as cited in Zhao and Kuh, 2004,
p. 117). It is highly controversial to suggest that websites can be seen as
both challenging and supporting but it does seem that if appropriately constructed,
students would benefit.

Perry

It would seem reasonable to state that most UUs are dualistic. According to
Wilson, dualists as defined by Perry, believe that there is always one right
answer and one wrong answer for a situation. Most UUs are going to have difficulty
when confronted with troubleshooting an online problem. I use Perry’s
Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development to showcase a flaw amongst most
UUs (Evans et al., 1998). Most UUs will never move past dualism. Those few
UUs who do move into multiplicity or relativism will be constantly utilized
for their abilities.

Online Development Theory

There is something very ironic in trying to develop a theory which relates
to the virtual world. The theorists from whom I draw extensive “material” from
were able to conduct research on physical environments that have existed for
over 200 years. The web is still in its infancy. My theory is based on a model
which uses Astin as the core of a three dimensional, circular helix which is
housed in a sleeve-like framework consisting of Chickering’s vectors
and Perry’s Cognitive Positions (Figure 1). Circling this structure is
a multi-directional challenge and support construct which incorporates challenge
as its initial starting place (Evan’s et al., 1998; Wilson, 1996; Sanford,
1967). It is my belief that student or UU online development occurs within
the helix and that development is linear going from top to bottom. However,
there are multiple angles and paths to the top of the helix.

Online development is seen as students move up the helix while developing
their cognitive abilities and establishing their proficiency with Chickering’s
vectors. The unique aspects of online development theory are represented by
the meshing of multiple theories into a model which utilizes challenge and
support. While students are developing their identity and their cognitive abilities
in an upward progression, challenge and support is taking place in a circular
rotation while the UU rises to the top. The key tenets of the challenge and
support structure are the creation of either a state of web disequilibrium
or understanding. Disequilibrium is defined as anything which causes a student
to become frustrated and out of touch with their online environment. Understanding
is defined as alternative to disequilibrium with UUs having the ability to
float between these two states. Support is given to students who are encountering
disequilibrium and/or understanding in an effort to foster online engagement.
In the near future, stages will be created which will identify positions for
developmental research followed by a qualitative study designed to shed some
light on the validity of the model.

Applications

Online development theory can be used in most student affairs disciplines.
Since all students are part of the online environment, they all fall somewhere
within the helix.

Application Examples:

• Admissions counselors can direct students to blogs and online communities
  to foster the initial engagement with a university. Students would be challenged
  with new opportunities for growth via new opinions and ideas.
• Career services counselors can measure a student’s online development
  to determine whether or not a student requires specific job skills.
• Academic success center staffers could offer a weekly online challenge
  which would provide unique support information for student. The challenge
  would come in the form of an e-mail asking students to engage with an online
  service.
• Disability services staffers can qualitatively measure accessibility issues
  for students with disabilities to ensure that challenge is matched with equal
  amounts of support.
• First Year Success Courses instructors can utilize the model to gain understanding
  about their students and their online behaviors.
• Educational technology personnel can utilize web statistics to measure
  student access including: amount of time spent per page, discussion activity
  levels, and popular pages/sites.

The application possibilities for online development and the helix model are
numerous. I hope to continue my reflection and synthesis of the concepts that
I have outlined. Technology is constantly changing and thus the online development
theory will have to adapt accordingly.

References

Astin, A. (1984). Student involvement: a developmental theory for higher
education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25(4), 297-308.

Evans, N., Forney, D., & Guide-DiBrito, F. (1998). Student development
in college: theory, research, and practice . San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.

Sanford, N. (1967). Self & society: social change and individual development. New
York, NY: Atherton Press.

Terenzini, P. T. (1999). Research and practice in undergraduate education:
And never the twain shall meet?. Journal of Higher Education, 38, 33-48.

Wilson, B. A. (1996). A descriptive study: The intellectual development of
business administration students. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 38,
209-221.

Zhao, C.-M., Kuh, G.D. (2004). Adding value: learning communities and student
engagement. Research in Higher Education. 45(2), 115-138.

Chronic Stress Intervention Strategies

• Universities and colleges deploy a number of intervention strategies to
  help prevent and aid in the reduction of chronic stress within the student
  populations which they serve.

Primary interventions:

• The most important primary intervention for universities/colleges is the
  counseling services department. This type of intervention is also known as
  a tertiary preventive intervention.
• Training plays a vital role in the intervention process. It introduces
  counseling personnel to both students and staff. The referral process begins
  with appropriately trained student support staff.

Secondary Interventions:

• Secondary preventative interventions include: Counseling workshops (Stress
  Management, Time Management, and Relationship Skills.), Health education
  workshops (Emotional wellness, physical wellness, etc.), Academic success
  workshops, De-Stress Activities during Final exam time periods.
• Utilize student-lead peer organizations. Students can present relevant
  information to their peers.
• Post up-to-date information on the web. Include anonymous screenings for
  common issues, alcohol-education sites, listings of peer organizations and
  other mental health groups and counselors, and any other campus health/wellness
  resources.

Emergency/Non-emergency Interventions:

• Emergency Situation (imminent threat of harm):
• Call 911 or University Police
• Stay with the student
• Notify the Dean of Students and Counseling Services

Emergency Situation (Recent threat or harm):

• Contact Counseling Services immediately and follow-up with the Dean of
  Students

Non Emergency

• Contact Counseling Services for guidance and referral strategies and
  follow-up with the Dean of Students if you observe the following behaviors:
  Erratic behavior, excess sleep or not enough sleep, evidence of an eating
  disorder, depression, drug use including alcohol.

Consultations/Referrals

• It is important to determine what resources are available to you when you
  refer a student. Most counseling services departments offer free, confidential
  counseling appointments with licensed staffers.

How to refer

• Build rapport with a student. Utilize attending skills and listen to what
  they have to say. Give the student your complete attention.
• Determine the seriousness of the issue.
• Refer the student –
• See if the student will choose to self-refer
• Re-summarize the issue
• Raise the issue of seeking outside help
• Assess the reaction to the suggestion
• See if the student chooses an appropriate response
• If student is unaware of resources, indicate appropriate support options
• Focus on the positive aspects of seeking help
• Talk about relevant procedures and allow student to contact support using
  your phone
• Share relevant information with counseling personnel after securing permission
  from the student
• Follow-up with the student to see if they kept their appointment
• Finally, respect the student. In a non-emergency situation, it is the
  student’s choice to receive support

Resources

• Counseling Services
• Student Health Services
• Career Services
• Dean of Students
• Academic Success Center

References

A guide for smu faculty and staff: identifying and referring the distressed student. (n.d.). Retrieved Feb. 22, 2005, from Stress and College Students – Counseling and Testing – SMU Web site: http://www.smu.edu/healthcenter/counseling/ct_stress.asp

Gottlieb, B. (Ed.). (1997). Coping with chronic stress. New York: Plenum Press.

Kadison, R. (2004). The mental-health crisis: what colleges must do. Retrieved Feb. 22, 2005 , from The Chronicle Web site: http://chronicle.com/prm/weekly/v51/i16/16b02001.htm

The Problem of Privilege

1: White Privilege #1 – I can speak of my own experiences regarding diversity and be seen as unique or vulnerable when I am in a room full of white people.

White Privilege #2 — I am never asked if I am from the United States or if I just moved here. It is assumed that I am a citizen because of my skin color.

2: In privilege # 6, McIntosh writes about the lies that are spread via our educational system. One way that I believe that I can give up the privilege of ethnocentric education is to read history books that accurately portray the history of marginalized groups. I can also pass on these books to friends and family members as potential sources of re-education. Howard Zinn and Ronald Takaki are excellent sources of accurately written historical texts. I think I am working towards giving up privilege #6 and in some ways, beginning to share or extend new information to other white folks.

I am currently choosing to not align myself with the first privilege that McIntosh writes about. This privilege is the privilege of “arranging to be in the company of people of my race most of the time.” I am working on developing networks of friends who are of color, LGBT, and any other members of oppressed groups. I’m doing this to be a better person and to do what I can to lead by example. I think white folks need to see and hear white men talk about diversity.

I currently identify as an anti-racist, a feminist, and an ally. These identities are causing me to give up the 21st privilege. This privilege is one that I am struggling with giving up because I am unsure what it will mean to my psyche. The idea of coming home after “meetings of organizations I belong to, and feeling isolated, out-of-place, outnumbered, unheard, held at a distance or feared,” is not a pleasant thing. This feeling of isolation has already started to happen on a limited scale. It is a new experience for me in my efforts to subvert the dominant paradigm. I feel like the system wants me back and that my punishment is going to be isolation. Fortunately, I have an excellent support system of folks whose views align with my own.

3: I believe that it is accurate to call something a privilege that is imposed upon a person by our social structure, that they do not want and can’t get rid of. McIntosh makes it very clear in her article that it is important to distinguish unearned privileges which are part of unearned advantages. It is important to discuss privileges that are unearned; because within that discussion comes the reality that institutionalized oppression creates unearned advantages for some, while simultaneously disadvantaging someone else. Unearned privilege comes from institutional power.

4: The second we truly realize that we are privileged means that we also realize that our privileges come at the expense of someone else and that these privileges do damage to those who are privileged. Systems of oppression like racism, sexism, and heterosexism could not exist if heterosexual white men gave up their privileges and to do that, they would have to give up their power. If temporarily able-bodied folks realize that they benefit from the institutionalized oppression of persons who are disabled then all TABs would be forced to create new institutions that create systems where buildings would be accessible and technology would be usable for all people regardless of visual or motor impairments.